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GSH primarily exists in two states: the reduced form (GSH), which is the dominant state, and the oxidized form, glutathione disulfide (GSSG), where two GSH molecules are connected via a disulfide bond [29,87]

Degterev A, Huang Z, Boyce M, et al

The resulting formation of reactive aldehydes like malondialdehyde (MDA) and 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal (4-HNE) serves as a hallmark of oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation (Dodson et al., 2019

In renal tubular epithelial cells treated with calcium oxalate (CaOx) to induce kidney stone formation, CHAC1 expression increases alongside a decreased GSH level, reduced GPX4 activity, increased iron and MDA content and elevated ROS and lipid peroxidation